History
Pre-Christian winter festivals
A winter festival was traditionally the most popular festival of the year in many cultures, in part because there was less agricultural work to be done during the winter. From a religious point of view, Christmas is less significant than Easter and other holidays, and the early church strongly opposed the celebration of birthdays. The prominence of Christmas in modern times reflects the continuing influence of the winter festival tradition, including the following festivals:
Saturnalia
Main article: Saturnalia
In Roman times, the best-known winter festival was Saturnalia, which was popular throughout Italy. Saturnalia was a time of general relaxation, feasting, merry-making, and a cessation of formal rules. It included the making and giving of small presents (Saturnalia et Sigillaricia), including small dolls for children and candles for adults.[5] During Saturnalia, business was postponed and even slaves feasted. There was drinking, gambling, and singing, and even public nudity. It was the "best of days," according to the poet Catullus.[6] Saturnalia honored the god Saturn and began on December 17. The festival gradually lengthened until the late Republican period, when it was seven days (December 17-24). In imperial times, Saturnalia was shortened to five days.[7]
A winter festival was traditionally the most popular festival of the year in many cultures, in part because there was less agricultural work to be done during the winter. From a religious point of view, Christmas is less significant than Easter and other holidays, and the early church strongly opposed the celebration of birthdays. The prominence of Christmas in modern times reflects the continuing influence of the winter festival tradition, including the following festivals:
Saturnalia
Main article: Saturnalia
In Roman times, the best-known winter festival was Saturnalia, which was popular throughout Italy. Saturnalia was a time of general relaxation, feasting, merry-making, and a cessation of formal rules. It included the making and giving of small presents (Saturnalia et Sigillaricia), including small dolls for children and candles for adults.[5] During Saturnalia, business was postponed and even slaves feasted. There was drinking, gambling, and singing, and even public nudity. It was the "best of days," according to the poet Catullus.[6] Saturnalia honored the god Saturn and began on December 17. The festival gradually lengthened until the late Republican period, when it was seven days (December 17-24). In imperial times, Saturnalia was shortened to five days.[7]
Sol Invictus
Main article: Sol Invictus
Beginning with Aurelian in 274, the Roman emperors promoted the festival of Natalis Solis Invicti (December 25) as an empire-wide holiday. The Sol Invictus festival honored two related solar deities, Sol Invictus (The Unconquered Sun), a god of Syrian origin, and Mithras, the Iranian "Sun of Righteousness," who was worshipped by many Roman soldiers.[8] [9] December 25 was considered to be the date of the Winter Solstice.[5] It was therefore the day on which the Sun proved itself to be "unconquered," despite the shortening of daylight hours.
Yule
Main article: Yule
Pagan Scandinavia celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period. Yule logs were lit to honor Thor, the god of thunder, with the belief that each spark from the fire represented a new pig or calf that would be born during the coming year. Feasting would continue until the log burned out, which could take as many as twelve days.[10] In Germany, the equivalent holiday was called Mitwinternacht (mid-winter night), and there were twelve Rauhnächte (harsh or wild nights).[11] As Northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, its pagan celebrations had a major influence on Christmas. Scandinavians still call Christmas Jul. In English, the word Yule is synonymous with Christmas,[12] a usage first recorded in 900.
Origen, a father of the Christian church, argued against the celebration of birthdays, including the birth of Christ.
Origin of the Christian holiday
The idea that December 25 is Jesus' date of birth was popularized by Sextus Julius Africanus in Chronographiai (AD 221), an early reference book for Christians.[13] It is both nine months after the Festival of Annunciation (March 25) as well as the date that the Romans marked as the winter solstice, which they called bruma.[5] When Julius Caesar introduced the Julian Calendar in 45 BC, December 25 was approximately the date of the solstice. (In modern times, the solstice falls on December 21 or 22.)
Earlier, around AD 220, the theologian Tertullian declared that Jesus died on March 25, 29. By AD 240, a list of significant events was being assigned to March 25, partly because it was believed to be the date of the vernal equinox. These events include creation, The Fall of Adam and Eve, and, most relevantly, the Incarnation.[14] The view that the Incarnation occurred on the same date as crucifixion is consistent with a Jewish belief that prophets died at an "integral age," either an anniversary of their birth or of their conception.[15][16]
The identification of December 25 as the birthdate of Jesus did not at first inspire feasting or celebration. In 245, the theologian Origen denounced the idea of celebrating the birthday of Jesus "as if he were a king pharaoh." Only sinners, not saints, celebrate their birthdays, Origen contended.
The earliest reference to the celebration of Christmas is in the Calendar of Filocalus, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome in 354.[3][17] A reference from 360 indicates that Christmas was well-established in Rome by that time. Christmas was promoted in the east as part of the revival of Trinitarian Christianity[3] which followed the death of pro-Arian Emperor Valens in the Battle of Adrianople (378). It was introduced to Constantinople in 379, to Antioch about 380, and to Alexandria about 430.[3] Christmas was especially controversial in Constantinople, the "fortress of Arianism," as Edward Gibbon described it. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop (381), although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom about 400.[3]
Medieval Christmas
In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany (January 6), which celebrates both the baptism of Jesus and the visit of Magi. But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin," now Advent.[18] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[18] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the "twelve days of Christmas" (i.e. Christmas to Epiphany).[18] The fortieth day after Christmas was Candlemas. The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was coronated on Christmas Day in AD 800. King William I of England was coronated on Christmas Day 1066.
By the High Middle Ages, Christmas had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.[18] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.[18] "Misrule" — drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling — was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.[18]
Main article: Sol Invictus
Beginning with Aurelian in 274, the Roman emperors promoted the festival of Natalis Solis Invicti (December 25) as an empire-wide holiday. The Sol Invictus festival honored two related solar deities, Sol Invictus (The Unconquered Sun), a god of Syrian origin, and Mithras, the Iranian "Sun of Righteousness," who was worshipped by many Roman soldiers.[8] [9] December 25 was considered to be the date of the Winter Solstice.[5] It was therefore the day on which the Sun proved itself to be "unconquered," despite the shortening of daylight hours.
Yule
Main article: Yule
Pagan Scandinavia celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period. Yule logs were lit to honor Thor, the god of thunder, with the belief that each spark from the fire represented a new pig or calf that would be born during the coming year. Feasting would continue until the log burned out, which could take as many as twelve days.[10] In Germany, the equivalent holiday was called Mitwinternacht (mid-winter night), and there were twelve Rauhnächte (harsh or wild nights).[11] As Northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, its pagan celebrations had a major influence on Christmas. Scandinavians still call Christmas Jul. In English, the word Yule is synonymous with Christmas,[12] a usage first recorded in 900.
Origen, a father of the Christian church, argued against the celebration of birthdays, including the birth of Christ.
Origin of the Christian holiday
The idea that December 25 is Jesus' date of birth was popularized by Sextus Julius Africanus in Chronographiai (AD 221), an early reference book for Christians.[13] It is both nine months after the Festival of Annunciation (March 25) as well as the date that the Romans marked as the winter solstice, which they called bruma.[5] When Julius Caesar introduced the Julian Calendar in 45 BC, December 25 was approximately the date of the solstice. (In modern times, the solstice falls on December 21 or 22.)
Earlier, around AD 220, the theologian Tertullian declared that Jesus died on March 25, 29. By AD 240, a list of significant events was being assigned to March 25, partly because it was believed to be the date of the vernal equinox. These events include creation, The Fall of Adam and Eve, and, most relevantly, the Incarnation.[14] The view that the Incarnation occurred on the same date as crucifixion is consistent with a Jewish belief that prophets died at an "integral age," either an anniversary of their birth or of their conception.[15][16]
The identification of December 25 as the birthdate of Jesus did not at first inspire feasting or celebration. In 245, the theologian Origen denounced the idea of celebrating the birthday of Jesus "as if he were a king pharaoh." Only sinners, not saints, celebrate their birthdays, Origen contended.
The earliest reference to the celebration of Christmas is in the Calendar of Filocalus, an illuminated manuscript compiled in Rome in 354.[3][17] A reference from 360 indicates that Christmas was well-established in Rome by that time. Christmas was promoted in the east as part of the revival of Trinitarian Christianity[3] which followed the death of pro-Arian Emperor Valens in the Battle of Adrianople (378). It was introduced to Constantinople in 379, to Antioch about 380, and to Alexandria about 430.[3] Christmas was especially controversial in Constantinople, the "fortress of Arianism," as Edward Gibbon described it. The feast disappeared after Gregory of Nazianzus resigned as bishop (381), although it was reintroduced by John Chrysostom about 400.[3]
Medieval Christmas
In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany (January 6), which celebrates both the baptism of Jesus and the visit of Magi. But the Medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin," now Advent.[18] In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.[18] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the "twelve days of Christmas" (i.e. Christmas to Epiphany).[18] The fortieth day after Christmas was Candlemas. The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was coronated on Christmas Day in AD 800. King William I of England was coronated on Christmas Day 1066.
By the High Middle Ages, Christmas had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.[18] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.[18] "Misrule" — drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling — was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.[18]
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